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Consider the Poems, Short Stories, and Autobiographical Pieces You Read From

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Literature broadly is any collection of written work, but it is likewise used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, peculiarly prose fiction, drama, and poetry.[1] In contempo centuries, the definition has expanded to include oral literature, much of which has been transcribed.[ii] Literature is a method of recording, preserving, and transmitting cognition and amusement, and can also accept a social, psychological, spiritual, or political role.

Literature, equally an art course, can too include works in various non-fiction genres, such as biography, diaries, memoir, letters, and the essay. Inside its wide definition, literature includes not-fictional books, articles or other printed information on a particular subject.[iii] [4]

Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura "learning, a writing, grammar," originally "writing formed with letters," from litera/littera "letter".[5] In spite of this, the term has also been practical to spoken or sung texts.[6] [7] Developments in print technology have allowed an e'er-growing distribution and proliferation of written works, which at present includes electronic literature.

Literature is classified according to whether it is poetry, prose or drama, and such works are categorized co-ordinate to historical periods, or their adherence to certain aesthetic features, or genre.

Definitions [edit]

Definitions of literature have varied over time.[8] In Western Europe, prior to the 18th century, literature denoted all books and writing literature can be seen as returning to older, more than inclusive notions, and so that cultural studies, for instance, include, in add-on to canonical works, pop and minority genres. The word is also used in reference non-written works: to "oral literature" and "the literature of preliterate civilization".

A value judgment definition of literature considers it equally consisting solely of high quality writing that forms office of the belles-lettres ("fine writing") tradition.[9] An instance of this in the (1910–11) Encyclopædia Britannica that classified literature every bit "the all-time expression of the best thought reduced to writing".[10]

History [edit]

Oral literature [edit]

The use of the term "literature" here is a petty problematic because of its origins in the Latin littera, "letter," essentially writing. Alternatives such as "oral forms" and "oral genres" have been suggested but the discussion literature is widely used.[eleven]

Oral literature is an aboriginal human tradition constitute in "all corners of the world".[12] Mod archaeology has been unveiling evidence of the man efforts to preserve and transmit arts and knowledge that depended completely or partially on an oral tradition, across various cultures:

The Judeo-Christian Bible reveals its oral traditional roots; medieval European manuscripts are penned by performing scribes; geometric vases from primitive Greece mirror Homer's oral fashion. (...) Indeed, if these last decades of the millennium have taught usa anything, it must exist that oral tradition never was the other we accused it of being; it never was the primitive, preliminary engineering of advice we thought information technology to be. Rather, if the whole truth is told, oral tradition stands out as the single most dominant communicative technology of our species every bit both a historical fact and, in many areas yet, a contemporary reality.[12]

The earliest poetry is believed to have been recited or sung, employed as a way of remembering history, genealogy, and law.[13]

In Asia, the transmission of folklore, mythologies also as scriptures in aboriginal India, in different Indian religions, was by oral tradition, preserved with precision with the assistance of elaborate mnemonic techniques.[xiv]

The early Buddhist texts are likewise generally believed to be of oral tradition, with the get-go by comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the Greek, Serbia and other cultures, so noting that the Vedic literature is too consistent and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally across generations, without being written down.[ citation needed ] According to Goody, the Vedic texts likely involved both a written and oral tradition, calling it a "parallel products of a literate lodge".[ citation needed ]

Australian Aboriginal culture has thrived on oral traditions and oral histories passed down through thousands of years. In a study published in February 2020, new show showed that both Budj Bim and Tower Hill volcanoes erupted between 34,000 and 40,000 years agone.[15] Significantly, this is a "minimum age constraint for human presence in Victoria", and also could be interpreted every bit show for the oral histories of the Gunditjmara people, an Aboriginal Australian people of south-western Victoria, which tell of volcanic eruptions being some of the oldest oral traditions in being.[xvi] An axe found underneath volcanic ash in 1947 had already proven that humans inhabited the region before the eruption of Tower Hill.[15]

All ancient Greek literature was to some degree oral in nature, and the earliest literature was completely so.[17] Homer's epic poesy, states Michael Gagarin, was largely composed, performed and transmitted orally.[eighteen] As folklores and legends were performed in front of distant audiences, the singers would substitute the names in the stories with local characters or rulers to give the stories a local flavor and thus connect with the audience, simply making the historicity embedded in the oral tradition equally unreliable.[19] The lack of surviving texts nearly the Greek and Roman religious traditions accept led scholars to presume that these were ritualistic and transmitted as oral traditions, but some scholars disagree that the complex rituals in the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations were an exclusive product of an oral tradition.[20]

Writing systems are not known to have existed among Native N Americans before contact with Europeans. Oral storytelling traditions flourished in a context without the use of writing to record and preserve history, scientific noesis, and social practices.[21] While some stories were told for amusement and leisure, most functioned every bit practical lessons from tribal experience applied to immediate moral, social, psychological, and environmental issues.[22] Stories fuse fictional, supernatural, or otherwise exaggerated characters and circumstances with real emotions and morals as a means of teaching. Plots oft reflect real life situations and may be aimed at particular people known by the story'south audience. In this way, social pressure level could exist exerted without directly causing embarrassment or social exclusion.[23] For instance, rather than yelling, Inuit parents might deter their children from wandering besides close to the water's edge by telling a story about a sea monster with a pouch for children within its reach.[24]

See besides African literature#Oral literature

Oratory [edit]

Oratory or the art of public speaking "was for long considered a literary art".[three] From Aboriginal Greece to the late 19th century, rhetoric played a central part in Western didactics in training orators, lawyers, counsellors, historians, statesmen, and poets.[25] [notation ane]

Writing [edit]

Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of merchandise and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form.[27] Though in both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica, writing may have already emerged considering of the need to record historical and environmental events. Subsequent innovations included more uniform, predictable, legal systems, sacred texts, and the origins of modern practices of scientific inquiry and knowledge-consolidation, all largely reliant on portable and hands reproducible forms of writing.

Early written literature [edit]

Ancient Egyptian literature,[28] along with Sumerian literature, are considered the globe'southward oldest literatures.[29] The primary genres of the literature of aboriginal Egypt—didactic texts, hymns and prayers, and tales—were written near entirely in verse;[30] By the Old Kingdom (26th century BC to 22nd century BC), literary works included funerary texts, epistles and letters, hymns and poems, and commemorative autobiographical texts recounting the careers of prominent administrative officials. It was not until the early Eye Kingdom (21st century BC to 17th century BC) that a narrative Egyptian literature was created.[31]

Many works of early periods, fifty-fifty in narrative course, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such every bit the Sanskrit Panchatantra.200 BC – 300 AD, based on older oral tradition.[32] [33] Drama and satire as well developed as urban culture provided a larger public audition, and later readership, for literary production. Lyric poetry (as opposed to epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in Eastern asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the most notable being the Shijing or Book of Songs (1046–c.600 BC), .[34] [35] [36]

Inscribed hieroglyphics cover an obelisk in foreground. A stone statue is in background.

In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused on philosophy, historiography, military science, agriculture, and poesy. China, the origin of modern newspaper making and woodblock printing, produced the world's first print cultures.[37] Much of Chinese literature originates with the Hundred Schools of Idea period that occurred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (769‒269 BC).[38] The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, every bit well as works of war machine science (e.thousand. Sun Tzu's The Art of State of war, c.5th century BC)) and Chinese history (due east.g. Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian, c.94 BC). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy emphasis on historiography, with often very detailed court records. An exemplary piece of narrative history of ancient Red china was the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389 BC, and attributed to the blind 5th-century BC historian Zuo Qiuming.[39]

In ancient Republic of india, literature originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early genres included drama, fables, sutras and ballsy poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas, dating back to 1500–chiliad BC, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age Republic of india.[xl] [41] The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas (vedic collections) engagement to roughly 1500–g BC, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, appointment to c. m‒500 BC, resulting in a Vedic menstruum, spanning the mid-2nd to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Late Statuary Age and the Iron Age.[42] The menstruation between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two most influential Indian epics, the Mahabharata [43] [44] and the Ramayana,[45] with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century Advertizement. Other major literary works are Ramcharitmanas[46] & Krishnacharitmanas.

The earliest known Greek writings are Mycenaean (c.1600–1100 BC), written in the Linear B syllabary on clay tablets. These documents incorporate prosaic records largely concerned with merchandise (lists, inventories, receipts, etc.); no real literature has been discovered.[47] [48] Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, the original decipherers of Linear B, state that literature almost certainly existed in Mycenaean Greece,[48] simply it was either non written downwardly or, if it was, information technology was on parchment or wooden tablets, which did not survive the devastation of the Mycenaean palaces in the twelfth century BC.[48] Homer's, epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey, are central works of aboriginal Greek literature. Information technology is mostly accepted that the poems were composed at some point around the tardily 8th or early seventh century BC.[49] Modernistic scholars consider these accounts legendary.[50] [51] [52] Most researchers believe that the poems were originally transmitted orally.[53] From antiquity until the present solar day, the influence of Homeric epic on Western civilization has been great, inspiring many of its nigh famous works of literature, music, art and moving-picture show.[54] The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and didactics; to Plato, Homer was simply the 1 who "has taught Hellenic republic" – ten Hellada pepaideuken.[55] [56] Hesiod's Works and Days (c.700 BC) and Theogony, are some of the earliest, and most influential, of ancient Greek literature. Classical Greek genres included philosophy, poetry, historiography, comedies and dramas. Plato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) and Aristotle (384–322 BC) authored philosophical texts that are the foundation of Western philosophy, Sappho (c. 630 – c. 570 BC) and Pindar were influential lyric poets, and Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC) ) and Thucydides were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in aboriginal Greece, of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, but a limited number of plays by three authors still be: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes (c. 446 – c. 386 BC) provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Former Comedy, the earliest course of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre.[57]

The Hebrew religious text, the Torah, is widely seen as a product of the Persian period (539–333 BC, probably 450–350 BC).[58] This consensus echoes a traditional Jewish view which gives Ezra, the leader of the Jewish community on its return from Babylon, a pivotal role in its promulgation.[59] This represents a major source of Christianity's Bible, which has been a major influence on Western literature.[sixty]

The beginning of Roman literature dates to 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a Latin version of a Greek play.[61] Literature in latin would flourish for the next six centuries, and includes essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings.

The Qur'an (610 Advertising to 632 AD)[62] ), the principal holy book of Islam, had a significant influence on the Arab language, and marked the beginning of Islamic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of the Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad.[23] [63] Equally Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of unifying and standardizing Arabic.[23]

Theological works in Latin were the dominant form of literature in Europe typically found in libraries during the Centre Ages. Western Vernacular literature includes the Poetic Edda and the sagas, or heroic epics, of Iceland, the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf, and the High german Vocal of Hildebrandt. A afterwards form of medieval fiction was the romance, an audacious and sometimes magical narrative with strong popular appeal.[64]

Controversial, religious, political and instructional literature proliferated during the European Renaissance as a outcome of the Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press[65] around 1440, while the Medieval romance developed into the novel,[66]

Publishing [edit]

Publishing became possible with the invention of writing, but became more practical with the invention of printing. Prior to printing, distributed works were copied manually, past scribes.

The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng fabricated movable type of earthenware c. 1045. Then c.1450, separately Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce and more widely bachelor.

Early printed books, single sheets and images which were created before 1501 in Europe are known as incunables or incunabula. "A man born in 1453, the yr of the fall of Constantinople, could await back from his fiftieth year on a lifetime in which about eight meg books had been printed, more possibly than all the scribes of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his metropolis in A.D. 330."[67]

Eventually, press enabled other forms of publishing likewise books. The history of modern newspaper publishing started in Federal republic of germany in 1609, with publishing of magazines following in 1663.

University discipline [edit]

In England [edit]

In England in the late 1820s, growing political and social awareness, "particularly among the utilitarians and Benthamites, promoted the possibility of including courses in English literary study in the newly formed London University". This further developed into the idea of the study of literature beingness "the ideal carrier for the propagation of the humanist cultural myth of a welleducated, culturally harmonious nation".[68]

America [edit]

American Literature (bookish bailiwick)

Women and literature [edit]

The widespread educational activity of women was not mutual until the nineteenth century, and because of this literature until recently was mostly male dominated.[69]

George Sand was an idea. She has a unique identify in our age.
Others are great men ... she was a great woman.

Victor Hugo, Les funérailles de George Sand [seventy]

At that place are few women poets writing in English language, whose names are remembered, until the twentieth century. In the nineteenth century some names that stand out are Emily Brontë, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and Emily Dickinson (come across American poetry). But while generally women are absent from the European cannon of Romantic literature, there is one notable exception, the French novelist and memoirist Amantine Dupin (1804 – 1876) best known by her pen name George Sand.[71] [72] 1 of the more popular writers in Europe in her lifetime,[73] being more renowned than both Victor Hugo and Honoré de Balzac in England in the 1830s and 1840s,[74] Sand is recognised equally i of the well-nigh notable writers of the European Romantic era. Jane Austen (1775 – 1817) is the first major English language woman novelist, while Aphra Behn is an early female dramatist.

Nobel Prizes in Literature have been awarded between 1901 and 2020 to 117 individuals: 101 men and 16 women. Selma Lagerlöf (1858 – 1940) was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Literature, which she was awarded in 1909. Additionally, she was the first woman to be granted a membership in The Swedish Academy in 1914.[75]

Feminist scholars have since the twentieth century sought expand the literary canon to include more women writers.

Children's literature [edit]

A dissever genre of children'south literature only began to emerge in the eighteenth century, with the development of the concept of childhood.[76] : x–xi The earliest of these books were educational books, books on comport, and simple ABCs—oft decorated with animals, plants, and anthropomorphic letters.[77]

Aesthetics [edit]

Literary theory [edit]

A fundamental question of literary theory is "what is literature?" – although many contemporary theorists and literary scholars believe either that "literature" cannot be defined or that it tin can refer to any utilise of language.[78]

Literary fiction [edit]

Literary fiction is a term used to draw fiction that explores whatsoever facet of the human being condition, and may involve social commentary. It is frequently regarded every bit having more artistic merit than genre fiction, especially the most commercially oriented types, but this has been contested in recent years, with the serious study of genre fiction inside universities.[79]

The following, by the award-winning British writer William Boyd on the curt story, might exist practical to all prose fiction:

[curt stories] seem to answer something very deep in our nature every bit if, for the elapsing of its telling, something special has been created, some essence of our feel extrapolated, some temporary sense has been made of our common, turbulent journey towards the grave and oblivion.[lxxx]

The very best in literature is annually recognized by the Nobel Prize in Literature, which is awarded to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel, produced "in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an platonic direction" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning).[81] [82]

The value of imaginative literature [edit]

Some researchers propose that literary fiction can play a role in an private'southward psychological evolution.[83] Psychologists have also been using literature as a therapeutic tool.[84] [85] Psychologist Hogan argues for the value of the time and emotion that a person devotes to understanding a graphic symbol'due south situation in literature;[86] that information technology can unite a large customs by provoking universal emotions, besides equally assuasive readers access to unlike cultures, and new emotional experiences.[87] One written report, for instance, suggested that the presence of familiar cultural values in literary texts played an important touch on the functioning of minority students.[88]

Psychologist Maslow'south ideas help literary critics sympathize how characters in literature reflect their personal culture and the history.[89] The theory suggests that literature helps an private's struggle for self-fulfilment.[ninety] [91]

The influence of religious texts [edit]

Religion has had a major influence on literature, through works like the Vedas, the Torah, the Bible,[92] and the Qur'an.[93] [94] [95]

The King James Version of the Bible has been called "the most influential version of the nigh influential volume in the world, in what is at present its most influential language", "the most important book in English organized religion and civilisation", and "the nigh celebrated book in the English-speaking world"[ citation needed ] - principally because of its literary style and widespread distribution. Prominent atheist figures such as the late Christopher Hitchens and Richard Dawkins take praised the Rex James Version as existence "a giant step in the maturing of English literature" and "a great work of literature", respectively, with Dawkins and so adding, "A native speaker of English language who has never read a word of the King James Bible is verging on the barbarian".[96] [97]

Societies in which preaching has swell importance, and those in which religious structures and authorities have a near-monopoly of reading and writing and/or a censorship part, may impart a religious gloss to much of the literature those societies produce or retain - every bit for example in the European Middle Ages. The traditions of close study of religious texts has furthered the development of techniques and theories in literary studies.

Types of literature [edit]

Poesy [edit]

Poetry has traditionally been distinguished from prose by its greater use of the aesthetic qualities of language, including musical devices such equally assonance, alliteration, rhyme, and rhythm, and by being ready in lines and verses rather than paragraphs, and more recently its use of other typographical elements.[98] [99] [100] This distinction is complicated by various hybrid forms such as sound poetry, concrete poetry and prose poem,[101] and more than more often than not by the fact that prose possesses rhythm.[102] Abram Lipsky refers to information technology every bit an "open secret" that "prose is not distinguished from verse by lack of rhythm".[103]

Prior to the 19th century, poetry was commonly understood to be something set in metrical lines: "any kind of bailiwick consisting of Rhythm or Verses".[98] Perhaps as a result of Aristotle'southward influence (his Poetics), "poesy" before the 19th century was usually less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive or rhetorical art.[ clarification needed ] [104] As a course information technology may pre-date literacy, with the earliest works being equanimous within and sustained past an oral tradition;[105] [106] hence it constitutes the earliest example of literature.

Prose [edit]

Equally noted above, prose generally makes far less utilise of the aesthetic qualities of language than poetry.[99] [100] [107] However, developments in modernistic literature, including complimentary verse and prose poetry have tended to blur the differences, and American poet T.S. Eliot suggested that while: "the distinction between verse and prose is clear, the stardom between poesy and prose is obscure".[108] At that place are verse novels, a type of narrative poetry in which a novel-length narrative is told through the medium of poesy rather than prose. Eugene Onegin (1831) by Alexander Pushkin is the most famous case.[109]

On the historical development of prose, Richard Graff notes that "[In the example of ancient Greece] recent scholarship has emphasized the fact that formal prose was a comparatively late development, an "invention" properly associated with the classical period".[110]

Latin was a major influence on the evolution of prose in many European countries. Specially important was the slap-up Roman orator Cicero.[111] It was the lingua franca among literate Europeans until quite recent times, and the great works of Descartes (1596 – 1650), Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626), and Baruch Spinoza (1632 – 1677) were published in Latin. Among the last important books written primarily in Latin prose were the works of Swedenborg (d. 1772), Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Gauss (d. 1855), and Isaac Newton (d. 1727).

Novel [edit]

Sculpture in Berlin depicting a stack of books on which are inscribed the names of bang-up German writers.

A novel is a long fictional prose narrative. In English language, the term emerged from the Romance languages in the late 15th century, with the meaning of "news"; it came to betoken something new, without a distinction between fact or fiction.[112] The romance is a closely related long prose narrative. Walter Scott defined it as "a fictitious narrative in prose or poesy; the involvement of which turns upon marvellous and uncommon incidents", whereas in the novel "the events are accommodated to the ordinary train of human events and the modernistic state of society".[113] Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel: "a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo",[114] indicates the proximity of the forms.[115]

Although there are many historical prototypes, so-called "novels before the novel",[116] the modernistic novel form emerges belatedly in cultural history—roughly during the eighteenth century.[117] Initially subject to much criticism, the novel has acquired a dominant position amongst literary forms, both popularly and critically.[115] [118] [119]

Novella [edit]

The publisher Melville House classifies the novella as "too short to be a novel, too long to exist a short story".[120] Publishers and literary honor societies typically consider a novella to be between 17,000 and 40,000 words.[121]

Short story [edit]

A dilemma in defining the "brusque story" every bit a literary grade is how to, or whether 1 should, distinguish information technology from whatsoever brusk narrative and its contested origin,[122] that include the Bible, and Edgar Allan Poe.[123]

Graphic novel [edit]

Graphic novels and comic books nowadays stories told in a combination of artwork, dialogue, and text.

Electronic literature [edit]

Electronic literature is a literary genre consisting of digital works

Nonfiction [edit]

Common literary examples of nonfiction include, the essay; travel literature and nature writing; biography, autobiography and memoir; journalism; letters; journals; history, philosophy, economic science; scientific, and technical writings.[4] [124]

Nonfiction can fall within the wide category of literature as "any collection of written piece of work", only some works fall inside the narrower definition "by virtue of the excellence of their writing, their originality and their general artful and artistic merits".[125]

Drama [edit]

Drama is literature intended for performance.[126] The form is combined with music and dance in opera and musical theatre (see libretto). A play is a written dramatic work by a playwright that is intended for performance in a theatre; it comprises chiefly dialogue betwixt characters. A closet drama, by contrast, is written to be read rather than to exist performed; the pregnant of which can be realized fully on the folio.[127] Nearly all drama took poem until comparatively recently.

The earliest form of which at that place exists substantial knowledge is Greek drama. This developed equally a operation associated with religious and borough festivals, typically enacting or developing upon well-known historical, or mythological themes,

In the twentieth century scripts written for non-stage media accept been added to this class, including radio, tv set and pic.

Law [edit]

Constabulary and literature [edit]

The constabulary and literature motion focuses on the interdisciplinary connection between law and literature.

Copyright [edit]

Copyright is a blazon of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive correct to brand copies of a artistic work, usually for a limited time.[128] [129] [130] [131] [132] The artistic piece of work may be in a literary, creative, educational, or musical course. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the grade of a creative piece of work, but not the idea itself.[133] [134] [135]

Great britain [edit]

Literary works accept been protected by copyright law from unauthorized reproduction since at least 1710.[136] Literary works are defined past copyright police force to hateful "any work, other than a dramatic or musical work, which is written, spoken or sung, and appropriately includes (a) a table or compilation (other than a database), (b) a computer programme, (c) preparatory pattern textile for a figurer program, and (d) a database."[137]

Literary works are all works of literature; that is all works expressed in print or writing (other than dramatic or musical works).[138]

United States [edit]

The copyright police of the United states has a long and complicated history, dating back to colonial times. It was established as federal law with the Copyright Act of 1790. This act was updated many times, including a major revision in 1976.

European Union [edit]

The copyright law of the Eu is the copyright law applicative within the Eu. Copyright law is largely harmonized in the Union, although country to country differences be. The body of law was implemented in the EU through a number of directives, which the member states demand to enact into their national law. The chief copyright directives are the Copyright Term Directive, the Information Order Directive and the Directive on Copyright in the Digital Unmarried Market place. Copyright in the Spousal relationship is furthermore dependent on international conventions to which the European union is a member (such as the TRIPS Agreement and conventions to which all Fellow member States are parties (such as the Berne Convention)).

Copyright in communist countries [edit]

Copyright in Japan [edit]

Japan was a party to the original Berne convention in 1899, so its copyright police is in sync with near international regulations. The convention protected copyrighted works for 50 years after the author's death (or 50 years subsequently publication for unknown authors and corporations). However, in 2004 Japan extended the copyright term to 70 years for cinematographic works. At the end of 2018, every bit a result of the Trans-Pacific Partnership negotiations, the seventy twelvemonth term was practical to all works.[139] This new term is not practical retroactively; works that had entered the public domain between 1999 and 2018 by expiration would remain in the public domain.

Censorship [edit]

Is a means employed by states, religious organizations, educational institutions, etc, to control what tin can exist portrayed, spoken, performed, or written.[140] Generally such bodies attempt to ban works for political reasons, or because they deal with other controversial matters such equally race, or sexual practice.[141]

A notorious example of censorship is James Joyce's novel Ulysses, which has been described past Russian-American novelist Vladimir Nabokov equally a "divine work of art" and the greatest masterpiece of 20th century prose.[142] It was banned in the United States from 1921 until 1933 on the grounds of obscenity. Nowadays it is a central literary text in English literature courses, throughout the earth.[143]

Awards [edit]

There are numerous awards recognizing achievement and contribution in literature. Given the diverseness of the field, awards are typically limited in scope, unremarkably on: form, genre, language, nationality and output (e.k. for beginning-time writers or debut novels).[144]

The Nobel Prize in Literature was i of the six Nobel Prizes established by the volition of Alfred Nobel in 1895,[145] and is awarded to an author on the basis of their trunk of work, rather than to, or for, a particular piece of work itself.[note 2] Other literary prizes for which all nationalities are eligible include: the Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the Man Booker International Prize, Pulitzer Prize, Hugo Award, Guardian Offset Volume Honor and the Franz Kafka Prize.

See also [edit]

  • Library
  • Literary amanuensis
  • Literary chemical element
  • Literary magazine
  • Reading
  • Rhetorical modes
  • Science fiction § Equally serious literature
  • Vernacular literature

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ The definition of rhetoric is a controversial subject within the field and has given rising to philological battles over its significant in Aboriginal Hellenic republic.[26]
  2. ^ However, in some instances a work has been cited in the explanation of why the award was given.

References [edit]

  1. ^ "Literature: definition". Oxford Learner's Dictionaries.
  2. ^ "Oral literature". Encyclopaedia Britannica. ; come across besides Homer.
  3. ^ a b "literature | Definition, Characteristics, Genres, Types, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  4. ^ a b OED
  5. ^ "literature (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  6. ^ Meyer, Jim (1997). "What is Literature? A Definition Based on Prototypes". Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics and Academy of North Dakota Session. 41 (one). Retrieved 11 February 2014. [ expressionless link ]
  7. ^ Finnegan, Ruth (1974). "How Oral Is Oral Literature?". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 37 (1): 52–64. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00094842. JSTOR 614104. S2CID 190730645. (subscription required)
  8. ^ Leitch et al., The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, 28
  9. ^ Eagleton 2008, p. ix.
  10. ^ Biswas, Critique of Poetics, 538
  11. ^ "Oral literature". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  12. ^ a b John Miles Foley. "What's in a Sign" (1999). E. Anne MacKay (ed.). Signs of Orality. BRILL Bookish. pp. 1–2. ISBN978-9004112735.
  13. ^ Francis, Norbert (2017). Bilingual and multicultural perspectives on poesy, music and narrative: The science of fine art. Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
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Bibliography [edit]

  • A.R. Biswas (2005). Critique of Poetics (vol. 2). Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN978-81-269-0377-i.
  • Jeremy Black; Graham Cunningham; Eleanor Robson, eds. (2006). The literature of ancient Sumer. Oxford: OUP. ISBN978-0-19-929633-0.
  • Cain, William Eastward.; Finke, Laurie A.; Johnson, Barbara E.; McGowan, John; Williams, Jeffrey J. (2001). Vincent B. Leitch (ed.). The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism . Norton. ISBN978-0-393-97429-4.
  • Eagleton, Terry (2008). Literary Theory: An Introduction (Anniversary, second ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN978-i-4051-7921-8.
  • Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism . Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-43878-0.
  • Hogan, P. Colm (2011). What Literature Teaches United states almost Emotion. New York: Cambridge University Printing.
  • Foster, John Lawrence (2001), Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology, Austin: University of Texas Printing, p. twenty, ISBN978-0-292-72527-0
  • Giraldi, William (2008). "The Novella's Long Life" (PDF). The Southern Review: 793–801. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
  • Goody, Jack (2006). "From Oral to Written: An Anthropological Breakthrough in Storytelling". In Franco Moretti (ed.). The Novel, Book 1: History, Geography, and Culture. Princeton: Princeton Up. p. 18. ISBN978-0-691-04947-2.
  • Paris, B.J. (1986). Third Strength Psychology and the Report of Literature. Cranbury: Associated University Printing.
  • Preminger, Alex; et al. (1993). The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics . US: Princeton Academy Press. ISBN978-0-691-02123-two.
  • Ross, Trevor (1996). "The Emergence of "Literature": Making and Reading the English language Canon in the Eighteenth Century."" (PDF). ELH. 63 (two): 397–422. doi:10.1353/elh.1996.0019. S2CID 170813833. Retrieved 9 February 2014.

Further reading [edit]

  • Bonheim, Helmut (1982). The Narrative Modes: Techniques of the Short Story. Cambridge: Brewer. An overview of several hundred short stories.
  • Gillespie, Gerald (January 1967). "Novella, nouvelle, novella, short novel? — A review of terms". Neophilologus. 51 (one): 117–127. doi:ten.1007/BF01511303. S2CID 162102536.
  • Wheeler, L. Kip. "Periods of Literary History" (PDF). Carson-Newman University. Retrieved eighteen March 2014. Cursory summary of major periods in literary history of the Western tradition.

External links [edit]

  • Project Gutenberg Online Library
  • Cyberspace Book Listing similar to IMDb only for books
  • Net Archive Digital eBook Drove

allenquind1948.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature

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